A spirit of Romanticism swept through all the arts. In the theatre, formalized rules were cast aside to allow for much more individualistic and passionate expression. The emphasis on detail, as opposed to the Neoclassical preoccupation with the general and representative, led toward naturalism on the one hand and a drama of the subjective imagination on the other. Almost every major poet turned his hand to writing plays. The source of inspiration for them all was Shakespeare, who enjoyed a new wave of appreciation in numerous translations and productions all over Europe.
The English poets, among them Lord Byron, John Keats, and Percy Bysshe Shelley, failed in their attempts to create a drama that suited prevailing tastes, partly because they were not prepared to descend to a level that they considered vulgar and partly because they were overshadowed by the weight of England’s dramatic heritage, having very little to add to it. By contrast, the influence of Shakespeare in Germany proved liberating. The breakaway from French Neoclassical drama, which had been heralded by Lessing in the 1760s, found full expression in the Sturm und Drang (“Storm and Stress”) movement that began with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s tempestuous first play, Götz von Berlichingen (1773; Eng. trans., Götz von Berlichingen). Its medieval theme led to a wave of historical writing and “gothicism” (a preoccupation with an idealized and melodramatic past that later became especially popular in England) and with it a new interest in the visual aspects of theatre production. The greatest exponent of the genre was Friedrich von Schiller, whose first play, Die Räuber (1781; The Robbers), left audiences stunned. Goethe and Schiller were both involved with the court theatre at Weimar. When Goethe, as director of the theatre, saw that the Sturm und Drang movement was leading to excess and absurdity, he reverted to a more Classical style of theatre. Heinrich von Kleist, best known for his play Prinz Friedrich von Homburg (1821; The Prince of Homburg), was considered by some the only dramatist of real merit at the time.
Melodrama
Melodrama arose from two factors: the popularization of Romanticism and the Gothic; and the evasion of the restrictive licensing laws of England and France. In spite of its lack of literary merit, melodrama became the most popular dramatic form of the 19th century. For example, August von Kotzebue, whose work Goethe was reluctantly forced to stage at Weimar, wrote more than 200 melodramas and exerted an enormous influence in England and France. The French dramatist Guilbert de Pixérécourt also enjoyed wide popularity. His play Coelina; ou, l’enfant du mystère (1800) was translated into English (without acknowledgement) by Thomas Holcroft as A Tale of Mystery and in 1802 became the very first melodrama to be seen in England.
Both Kotzebue and Pixérécourt used a great variety of subjects with historical and exotic locations. They took every opportunity to incorporate sensational or terrifying effects—such as floods, fires, and earthquakes—and made use of live animals on stage. In their works, character development is secondary to lively action. Much of the dialogue was accompanied by incidental music in an effort to heighten emotional impact. Even the best actors of the day, including John Philip Kemble and his sister Sarah Siddons, were compelled to appear in melodramas as an alternative to Shakespeare.
The early 19th century
While Shakespearean tragedy remained the main inspiration for serious Romantic drama in Russia, Poland, Hungary, and the Scandinavian countries during the early 19th century, few works of true merit were produced. After the French Revolution had settled, Napoleon reconstituted the Comédie-Française in 1799 under the actor François-Joseph Talma, who introduced many reforms and encouraged a less declamatory style of speech. In England, after a triumphant debut at Drury Lane in 1814 as Shylock in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice, Edmund Kean went on to become the greatest actor of the age, specializing in classic villain roles.
The most influential contributions, however, were in the field of popular theatre. Joseph Grimaldi created the much loved clown character in the harlequinade section of the English pantomime, appearing annually at Covent Garden until his retirement in 1823. At about this same time, Jean-Gaspard Deburau rekindled interest in the art of mime through his portrayals of the white-faced Pierrot at the Théâtre des Funambules in Paris. Both men became living legends.
A strain of fantastic comedy, influenced by Gozzi in its juxtaposition of the fairy-tale world and reality, was developed in Germany and Austria in the plays of Johann Nestroy and Ferdinand Raimund. In England this found expression in the extravaganza (similar in spirit to the pantomime) mainly through the fairy plays of J.R. Planché. His example was followed later in the century by Sir W.S. Gilbert, who became famous for the satirical operettas he wrote with Sir Arthur Sullivan, notable among which was Iolanthe (1882). The English burlesque (a more satirical version of the extravaganza) and the burletta (a farce with songs) were also popular forms of the time, as was their French counterpart, the vaudeville, which paved the way for the operetta.
Rise in the number of theatres
A sharp increase in the number of theatre buildings matched the rapid growth in urban development. During the London winter season of 1807, for example, only 10 theatres were operating; by 1870 there were 30. Drury Lane was rebuilt on a huge scale in 1794, designed to seat 3,600 people. This made audiences difficult for actors to control, and subtle acting became almost impossible. Most of the new theatres, however, were much smaller.
In 1803 London’s Lyceum Theatre substituted gas for candles and oil lamps as a source of outdoor illumination, and in the next decade other theatres followed suit indoors. Initially, the disadvantages were an appalling smell and a greatly increased danger of fire from the naked jets of flame. The advantage was that the brightness of onstage light could be controlled to a degree never before known. Faced with the prospect of a much wider theatregoing public, theatres became more specialized, catering to particular classes and their corresponding tastes. For middle-class audiences, changes in the auditoriums of European public theatres brought about greater comfort and respectability, with the result that spectators became quieter during the performance. In England, for example, soft seats were installed in the pit by the late 1820s. Galleries with their open boxes were divided into closed boxes near the proscenium arch, allowing for privacy, with the rest of the gallery open and known as the “dress circle.” For the poorer sections of the English populace, there were the small “penny theatres” (of which more than 80 existed in London during the 1830s), where patrons paid a penny to see short, crudely mounted productions. Some individuals began to exploit their special talents as singers, dancers, mimics, and jugglers, giving solo performances in ale houses and taverns. These forms of entertainment became so popular that a great chain of provincial and metropolitan theatres sprang up from the music room annex of the public saloon during the second half of the 19th century. In England these forms came to be known as music hall, in the United States as vaudeville, and in France as cafés chantants.
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In conclusion, the 19th-century theater was a dynamic and transformative period marked by the influence of Romanticism, the resurgence of Shakespeare, the rise of melodrama, and significant developments in theatrical architecture and audience dynamics. This overview demonstrates a nuanced understanding of the historical and cultural factors that shaped the theatrical landscape during this fascinating era.
