Substituting binders and flours in pancakes (2024)

“Does this candy bar contain any trace of tree nuts?” “Oh, I cannot eat wheat wafflesbecause I have celiac disease.” As a classroom teacher these statements and similar others have becomeincreasingly common in our schools. Students can come to class either knowing or not knowing they suffer from afood allergy. Some schools have prevented birthday parties from being celebrated at school because of the fearof students being allergic to baked goods. At school, I bring prepackaged food to my students all the time. Dueto the number of cases of students that suffer from food allergies, I have had to become knowledgeable and awareof the many food allergens and what causes those particular allergies so that my students can still enjoy snacksin class.

According to the Center for Disease Control website, “Eight foods account for 90% of serious allergicreactions in the United States: milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, wheat, soy, peanuts, and tree nuts. Foodallergies are a growing food safety and public health concern that affect an estimated 4%-6% of the children inthe United States. A food allergy occurs when the body has a specific and reproducible immune response tocertain foods.¹

Since food allergies are a reality for many people, it is imperative for students to understand the conceptsbehind substitutions. After all, food allergies often require that people change recipes by swapping potentialallergens with other ingredients. This unit is designed to teach substitutions and the chemical reactions behindthem. To isolate the substitution skills, we’ll focus entirely on pancakes which offer endless ways tosubstitute ingredients.

For the past five years I have taught students identified as being gifted and talented through a pull-outapproach in elementary schools in Tulsa, Oklahoma. I have the pleasure of working with kindergarten throughsixth grade twice a week for an hour. Since I teach students who are identified as gifted and talented, I amgiven autonomy on what I can teach; however, this unit could easily be adapted for upper elementary scienceclasses.

My students play a huge part in the decision making of what they are learning. At the beginning of the year, theyare given an interest survey. Each year the recurring topic of interest is chemistry. My students are fascinatedwith chemicals and have a desire to learn more about their properties. Unfortunately, several of my studentsassume the only way people interact with chemicals is when there is danger involved and things are exploding.

To respond to my students’ interest in chemistry, we experimented with the Carolina Science curriculum“Chemical Tests.” Although, students enjoyed the lower level experiments such as mixing cornstarchand water, I realized that so much of the science they were exposed to was from a kit or a science textbookinstead of them building on their own natural curiosity or connecting to real world problems.

Like many teachers, my education background did not prepare me to teach rigorous engaging science lessons.Additionally, science has often taken a back seat at my school while the priorities have been towardmath and language arts. Students need inquiry based science instruction that provides them with real lifeapplicable situations that challenge them to be critical thinkers, by defining their own problems and coming upwith innovative solutions. This type of instruction will hopefully encourage them to take advanced courses inmiddle and high school and expand their interests in science-related professions.

With my students’ desire to learn chemistry and the onslaught of students who suffer from food allergies, Idecided to really challenge myself to design a science curriculum that contains more purposeful, life applicablehands-on science lessons.

Why I Chose Pancakes

What do crepes, aebleskiver, and johnnycakes have in common? They are cultural versions of a pancake.Pancakes are a comfort food that can be eaten at breakfast, during afternoon tea, or dinner. Pancakes areconsidered a quick bread composed of two essential parts: dry ingredients which are typically flour, baking sodaor baking powder, and wet ingredients which are usually milk, eggs, and butter. Once a person understands thebasic chemical interaction of a pancake, it can be crafted using several combinations of ingredients. Thepossibilities are completely endless. Pancakes can be peppered with savory seafood, topped with delectablefruits and chutneys, and drizzled with syrups.

But what happens when one of those ingredients is off limits to a person due to a food allergy? Do theycompletely stop eating pancakes or foods that contain that allergen? No, they research wheat or egg substitutesand continue through trial and error making and enjoying their beloved pancakes.

While this unit does not primarily focus on food allergies, I want my students to be aware that, if they know thebasic components of a recipe, the function of the ingredients, and how chemical reactions happen, they cansubstitute ingredients. This unit does not seek to bombard my students with a lot of nutritional information orto suggest one ingredient is better than others for one’s health.

For this unit, my students will substitute gluten-free flours in place of wheat flour and replace the traditionalbinder egg with alternatives. They will be using a griddle supervised in class. It is my hope that my studentswill be able to transfer their acquired knowledge of the properties of making a pancake to other baked goodssuch as cakes, muffins and quick breads.

In my non sophisticated cooking career, I have had my share of cooking catastrophes. Cakes I baked collapsed and“biscuits” I made that were originally meant to be sugar cookies. As I ponder my misfortunatedisasters, I now know that I did not properly understand the function or chemical reaction of each ingredient inthe recipe. Knowing what role ingredients play and understanding basic chemical reactions would have saved me myshare of deplorable creations.

A pancake is called many different names in different languages all around the world. Whetherone lives in North America and calls it a flapjack, spends time in France where it is known as a crepe, orAustralia where it is considered a pikeleti, either way a pancake is nothing more than a quick bread. A quickbread uses leavening agents other than yeast. Quick breads can be prepared quickly. They do not require culinaryskills or the time consuming labor and the climate control needed for traditional yeast breads. Pancakes arecomposed of flour, a liquid, and a leavening agent, that is then heated in a pan or on a griddle on a stovetop,where they are typically flipped and cooked on both sides.

One key ingredient in making quick breads, cakes, cookies, and other baked goods is the binding agent. Bindersare any ingredient that can help a mixture hold its shape or remain bound together. Traditional binding agentsinclude flour and eggs.

The most commonly used food binder is flour. Flour is created by grinding raw grains or roots into a powder andthen served in diverse cuisines. Flour adds volume, texture, and taste to most recipes. As explained by Laytonand Larsen, “There are three flour components used to develop structure in baked goods. They includeprotein; wheat and gluten-free flours which are all high in protein. Another component is starch. When starch iscombined with water and heat it forms a web, much like how gluten forms a web when using wheat. Unfortunately,starch webs are much less durable than protein webs. While starch can provide some structure, it needs help fromprotein. The third component is lipids. All flours, no matter wheat or not, contain lipids or just plainol’ fat. In fact, that is why many high- fat flours are stored in the fridge, because the flour can becomerancid when the fat oxidizes. On a positive note, lipids add flavor and help keep the flour’s proteinstructure from overwhelming the product.”²

The most ubiquitous flour is wheat. Wheat has long been the grain of choice for milling to turn it into flour.Wheat comes from a seed which contains an endosperm, bran and germ. First, is the endosperm. It is83 percent of the kernels weight and contains the greatest source of proteins and carbohydrates and white flouris produced from it. Then, there is the bran, which makes up about 14½ percent of the kernelweight. Bran is included in whole wheat flour and can be bought separately. Finally, there is the germ which isabout 2 ½ percent of the kernel weight. The germ is the embryo of the seed, often separated from flour inmilling because the fat content limits flour’s shelf-life.³

Wheat is classified according to hardness, color and growing season. The difference lies in the protein content,with hard wheat containing a higher level of protein than soft. Also, wheat is milled and processed in slightlyvarying ways to create the different flours.⁴

Feeling a little adventurous and experimental? Try adding water to wheat flour, knead the mixture into dough,then rinse the glob under water to wash away the starches and fiber, you will be left with a protein mixturecalled gluten.⁵ Wheat flour contains different types of proteins, but there are two in particularthat contribute to the complexity of wheat, gliadin and glutenin, which are stored together with starch in theendosperm. Layton and Larsen describe “gliadin as a ball with little hooks all overit.”⁶ This molecule makes the dough stretchy, and provides plasticity.⁷ Layton andLarsen describes the glutenin molecule as a long, coiled spring⁸ and provides strength and elasticityto baked goods.⁹

According to Crosby, “The network of glutenin and gliadin is formed when the long glutenin moleculescross-link with the hooks on the globular gliadin molecules. When dough is kneaded or mixed in water, thehydrated flexible proteins are stretched and aligned in the direction of kneading providing more chances to formcross-links between proteins. As kneading continues, the protein networks combine to form sheets of proteins.This step in the process can be compared to unraveling thread (proteins), and weaving the straightened threadinto pieces of cloth (networks), and then pieces of cloth being stitched together to form large sheets of clothsimilar to a quilt.”¹⁰

The network that is eventually formed is gluten. Gluten, which is Latin for “glue”,¹¹ actsas an adhesive material that can expand and stretch a certain amount without tearing and is responsible forhelping trap carbon dioxide in bread dough. Gluten helps create structure and determine texture in final bakedgoods. Also, the gluten network gives breads and cakes a little more cohesiveness, so when you cut into thattasty lemon cupcake or zucchini bread, they don’t just crumble and fall apart completely.

Flours with low protein contents will generate less gluten and flours with high protein content will create more.Wheat is the most common source of gluten and creates the highest percentage of it. Different strains of wheathave different concentrations of glutenin and gliadin proteins, based on the growing climate, so varying thesource of wheat will vary the amount of protein in its flour.¹²

There is an array of wheat flours on the market that serves different purposes. The most commonly used andreadily accessible flour is all-purpose wheat. All-purpose is made from the endosperm of the wheatgrain.¹³ Because it is a blend of hard and soft wheat, this is the go-to flour for pie crusts,pancakes, certain cookies, as well as breading for fried meats. All-purpose flour has 8 to 11 percentgluten.¹⁴

Another type of wheat flour is bread flour. This is made entirely from hard wheat. High gluten content helpsbread rise because the gluten traps and holds air bubbles as the dough is mixed and kneaded.¹⁵ Butwait, not to be out done, durum flour has the highest protein content, and thus can produce the most gluten.

For the bakers and cake aficionados, cake flour is made entirely of from soft wheat and contains the lowestprotein content which is 5 to 8 percent. The low protein content guarantees a tender texture; as when makingbaked goods with a high ratio of sugar to flour, this flour will be better to hold its rise and will be lessliable to collapse.¹⁶

Flour that healthy foodies prefer is whole wheat flour. It is brown in color, and is derived from the completewhole kernel (the bran and germ). Because of the presence of bran it reduces gluten production. When used inbread baking, it gives a nutty flavor and a denser texture when compared to all-purpose flour.¹⁷

Finally there is self-rising flour. The name says it all. This variety is premixed flour with baking powder, achemical leavening agent, and salt. The added ingredients are evenly distributed throughout the flour which aidsa consistent rise in baked goods.

Wheat flour substitutes

Most people think of flour in terms of “wheat” flour; however, flour can be ground from a variety ofnuts and seeds. Some types of alternative flours available in grocery stores are: almond, buckwheat, oat, andrice. Making pancakes, cookies, cakes, and other pastries can be achieved without wheat flour, but require anunderstanding about the different proportions, measuring, and mixing of the alternate ingredients being used.The following flours do not contain gluten, yet can still provide structure for baked goods.Although these flours contain proteins, they don’t form good networks to trap bubbles.

To build structure for pancakes that do not contain wheat, one should use a mixture of flours with high and lowlevels of protein. According to Layton and Larsen “most gluten-free flour blends use a ratio ofabout 70 percent high-protein flours to 30 percent lower-protein or high-starch flours. This ratio makes a flourblend that acts pretty much like all-purpose wheat flour in pancakes as well as other baked goods.”¹⁸A good mix of different flours helps compensate for the lack of gluten. Another tip to ensure structure ingluten-free pancakes is to add additional eggs to the pancake batter. Egg proteins help provide structure, butthe amount of liquid used will need to be reduced by 2 tablespoons.¹⁹

A common wheat flour substitute is almond flour. Almond flour is usually made with almonds that have beenblanched, meaning without skin and then finely ground to a light, floury texture. Since almond flour lacksgluten, compared to a pancake recipe that calls for wheat, more eggs will need to be added to provide structureto the baked good. On the other hand, almond flour contains more moisture, so baked goods won’t dry out asfast.

Amaranth is an ancient grain. Amaranth contains more protein than any other gluten-free grain and more proteinthan wheat flour.²⁰ Amaranth has intense, nutty flavor it is most commonly combined in a recipe in aproportion of 1 part to 3 parts of other flours. If wheat is being substituted, 1 cup amaranth can replace 1 cupof wheat flour.

Besides almond and amaranth flours, oat flour is made from ground whole oats. This flour does not contain glutenand tends to make baked goods moister than wheat flour. Oat flour adds a rich, nutty flavor and densertexture. In baked foods that need to rise, oat flour must be combined with other flours.

Two in particular are xanthan and guar gum. Xanthan gum is a sugar-like compound made by mixing aged (fermented)sugars with a certain kind of bacteria. Guar gum is derived from the ground endosperm of guar beans. The husksof the seeds of the guar bean are removed, the seeds are milled, and an off-white powder is then produced. Ingluten-free baking, guar gum isused much like xanthan gum. Itprovidesbinding, elasticity, andstructurefor baked goodsthat do not contain gluten.

Another binding agent is eggs. Eggs have a number of roles in baked goods, but their starring role is as abinder. The protein in the eggs gives structure to the batter so it’s neither stiff nor crumbly. Eggs canalso act as a leavener when they are beaten with butter and sugar.²¹

There are several common binding substitutes people can use in a pancake instead of eggs. Half of a mashed bananaworks great to replace eggs as it has the binding qualities. It’s best suited for cookies and pancakes asit complements the flavors.

Besides a binding agent, pancakes contain a leavening agent that causes the bread to rise. When using bakingsoda, which is an alkaline, the pancake must have an acidic ingredient that will react with the baking soda toform carbon dioxide.

Acids and bases have distinctive properties. Many of the foods we eat such as grapes, cottage cheese, eggs, beef,and sweeteners like honey and corn syrup contain acids. Acids give foods a tart or sour taste. Bases, known asalkaline, are characterized by their bitter taste and slippery feel. Some foods that contain alkaline are kale,avocado, and tofu. Commonly used bases are baking soda and alkaline water.

Baking soda is an alkaline leavening agent made of sodium bicarbonate that reacts immediately when dissolved in aliquid and combined with an acid, breaking down into sodium, water and carbon dioxide.²² The chemicalequation of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) is:

NaHCO₃ -^water-> Na⁺ + HCO₃^--^acid-> Na⁺ + H₂O + CO₂

In most quick bread recipes, the baking soda is mixed with the other dry ingredients before any liquidingredients are added. In order for baking soda to work properly as a leavening agent, it must be used inrecipes that contain acidic ingredients, such as molasses, buttermilk, or chocolate. The chemical reactionproduces carbon dioxide gas, which cause the batter or dough to rise.²³

Another chemical leavening agent, baking powder, is a mixture of baking soda, cream of tartar, an acidicingredient, and a starch, such as cornstarch, which prevents clumping of the powder. It is most often used inquick bread recipes that contain no acidic ingredients. It reacts immediately when added to liquids.“Baking powder is often referred to as: “double acting baking powder,” because it causes twoseparate rising actions to occur in the dough or batter. The first reaction occurs when the baking powder ismixed with liquid ingredients causing carbon dioxide gas to be produced, which causes the batter or dough torise. The second reaction occurs when heat is applied during the baking process, which causes furtherexpansion.”²⁴

When baking, up to 1 teaspoon of baking powder or ¼ teaspoon baking soda is sufficient to leaven 1 cup offlour in any given recipe. When using baking powder as a substitute for baking soda, four times the amount ofbaking powder as baking soda will be needed as called for in the recipe. For example, ½ teaspoon bakingsoda = 2 teaspoons of baking powder. ²⁵

So far we have covered flour, eggs, and leaveners. Another essential ingredient in traditional pancakes is -buttermilk. True buttermilk is the liquid whey left after cream has been churned to create butter. The methodsfor making buttermilk have changed over the years. In the past, buttermilk was fermented by naturally occurringbacteria as unpasteurized butter cream sat for a length of time before churning. “This process is called“ripening.” In modern times, as all milk and cream are pasteurized, a process that kills thenaturally occurring bacteria, buttermilk is made by reintroducing Lactobacillus acidophilus, theprobiotic bacteria that gives buttermilk its sour taste.”²⁶

Buttermilk is acidic and the slightly acidic batter helps keep baked goods moist and tender by breaking downlong, tough strands of gluten. Buttermilk contributes to the leavening of pancakes. In conjunction with bakingsoda, buttermilk produces carbon dioxide gas.

Before baking powder was invented, baking soda ruled a home cook’s kitchen, and it needed an acidicingredient to help it activate and balance its flavor. Buttermilk was just the essential ingredient to do justthat.²⁷

While baking soda works well with buttermilk, if a recipe calls for baking powder, take care in substitutingbuttermilk for regular milk as it upsets the balance of alkali to acid. Buttermilk has more acid than regularmilk, which will speed up the release of carbon dioxide and impede the leavening process.²⁸

This month long unit will be taught in the second semester after the students have a basic understanding ofscience content and processes. This unit will be divided into two parts. Part one will include the history ofpancakes and will include activities pertaining to pH scale, leavening, and binding agents. Part two will be theculminating activity. Students will use the information they learned from part one and develop a pancake recipethat substitutes traditional flours and binders.

Engineering Design Process

This strategy will guide the entire unit. Students will be asked to define the problem, identify possibleconstraints, brainstorm multiple solutions to the problem, select a solution, create and test their solution,come up with ways to improve their solution, and communicate their results.

Cooperative Learning

During this unit, students will participate in cooperative learning through flexible grouping. Students will viewthemselves as scientists and will understand a large part of solving problems is working with others. Flexiblegrouping either through whole group, small group, or with a partner will allow students to work with and learnfrom their peers in a way they feel comfortable contributing as a learner.

Anchor charts

Anchor charts will be used throughout the unit to recognize the learning goal, record my students thinking,visually see vocabulary words, and to highlight important parts of the lesson.

Science Notebook

Students will keep science entries containing important vocabulary words, their inquiries, predictions,observations, and findings throughout the unit.

Part One

I will read Pancakes, Pancakes by Eric Carle to build anticipated interest in learning about pancakes. Wewill have guided discussion about what the ingredients were that the mother in the story used to make her son apancake. I will use an anchor chart to write down the students’ responses. This chart will be ourreference each time we discuss an ingredient.

After I have read the story, we will have a discussion about food allergies. I will ask if they know someone whocannot eat certain foods due to having a food allergy. Then we will return back to the anchor chart and discusswhat may be possible allergens. I will ask my students what is the main ingredient in a pancake. Afterthey have successfully stated flour, we will discuss the properties of flour, in particular wheat flour. Theywill learn that wheat contains gluten which is a protein that provides pancake dough the structure it needs.As a class, we will discuss that some people are not able to consume wheat because it causes them to havean allergic reaction.

Wheat flour substitution activity

The next time I see my students, we will review from the anchor chart the ingredients in a traditional pancake.As a whole group, we will discuss possible wheat flour substitutes. I will display almond, coconut, oat, andwheat flours. Students will create a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the physical properties of each flourusing their five senses to analyze the different flours.

Binding activity

After we have discussed wheat substitutions, I will demonstrate the importance of eggs as a binder in pancakes. Iwill ask the class what they believe the role of an egg is in pancakes. I will make a pancake that containswheat flour, milk, and baking soda. Students will observe the eggless pancake and discover that the egg iswhat helps bind the other ingredients. To further explain the idea of a binding agent, I will ask them what canthey use to bind two pieces of paper together. Student responses may include tape, mayonnaise, or glue. Ateacher never knows the vivid imagination of their students. After discussing the characteristics of abinder, students will work in groups of four to brainstorm what foods can be added to a pancake in place of anegg to serve as a binder. The idea behind this activity is to get my students to understand that in baking,cooks go through trial and error to determine what works in recipes.

Leavening agent activity

Before students make their own pancakes substituting different flour and binders, students need to understandwhat makes a pancake rise. I will demonstrate a concept they are already familiar with which is the chemicalreaction between baking soda and vinegar. I will explain to them that the vinegar is an acid, a chemical thatcan be described as being sour or tangy. I will further explain that baking soda is a base, a chemical that isbitter in taste. I will ask the students what they think the vinegar and baking soda produces when they arecombined. We will discuss that the bubbles they see being formed are carbon dioxide. After that, I willset up an experiment where students will predict which unknown chemicals combined with known acids will producebubbles (carbon dioxide).

Students will be asked to predict what two ingredients they think cause the chemical reaction. Without me tellingmy students what each powder is, students will be given cups containing baking powder and baking soda along withother miscellaneous white powders. Using a work mat and a spoon, students will place each of the powders onindividual circles on the work mat. Students will be asked to apply acids such as yogurt, buttermilk, lemonjuice, and vinegar to each circle and observe if a chemical reaction takes place. Based off their prediction ofwhat they know is in a pancake, they will realize that baking soda or baking powder along with an acid likebuttermilk causes a chemical reaction in pancakes.

Objective: To determine what two ingredients cause a chemical reaction in pancakes.

Materials:

Work mat worksheets with three circles for the reactions and spoons

Containers of unknown chemicals marked with colored dots that contain baking soda, baking powder,corn starch, and talcum powder

acids: buttermilk, lemon juice, and vinegar

Procedures:

1. Predict what unknown chemicals will produce a reaction when combined with the acids.

2. Place baking powder on each circle on the work mat.

3. Add buttermilk on the first circle. Observe what happens.

4. Write down in notebook what you observed.

5. Repeat the first four steps for the other acids.

Work Mat example of red dot which is baking soda

Part Two

After students have completed part one activities, students will work with a partner using the engineering designmodel to create a pancake that contains a substitute for wheat flour and eggs.

Alt-Lopez, J. Kenji. “The Food Lab: How to Make the Best Light and Fluffy Pancakes.”http://www.seriouseats.com/2015/05/the-food-lab-how-to-make-the-best-buttermilk-pancakes.html.(accessed June 9,2017).

Berkeley Wellness. “Types of Wheat Flour.”http://www.berkeleywellness.com/healthy-eating/food/article/types-wheat-flour (accessed June 12,2017).

https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/foodallergies/index.htm. “Food Allergies inSchools.” (accessed July12,2017).

Christensen, Julie. “A List of Leavening Agents.”http://oureverydaylife.com/list-leavening-agents-27126.html

Corriher, Shirley. “Too Much Leavening Can Make Baked Goods a Flop.”http://www.finecooking.com/article/too-much-leavening-can-make-baked-goods-a-flop. (accessedJuly17, 2017).

Crosby,Guy. “Explaining Gluten.”http://www.cookingscienceguy.com/pages/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Explaining-Gluten.pdf.(accessed August 2,2017).

Davis, William.Wheat belly: lose the wheat, lose the weight, and find your path back tohealth. Emmaus, Penn.: Rodale, 2014.

Dvorak, Cody.“Wheat: From Field to Flour”. Pdf. Nebraska: Nebraska, 2008.https://nebraskawheat.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/WheatFromFieldToFlour.pdf. (accessed July12,2017).

Greene, Amanda. “Understanding Gluten.”http://www.huffingtonpost.com/amanda-greene/understanding-gluten_b_2832252.html. (accessedJuly 15, 2017).

Filippone, Peggy Trowbridge. “What Is Baking Soda and How is it Used in Baking?”https://www.thespruce.com/what-is-baking-soda-1809260. (accessed June17, 2017).

Lawandi, Janice. ”Do You Know What Gluten Actually Is?” Thekitchn.com./what-the-heck-is-gluten-weve-got-chemistry-219916. (accessed August 2,2017)

Layton, Jean McFadden., and Linda Johnson. Larsen.Gluten-free baking for dummies. Hoboken,NJ: Wiley, 2012.

Parks, Stella. “Cookie Science: How Baking Soda Works.”http://www.seriouseats.com/2015/12/cookie-science-how-baking-soda-works.html. (accessed June 9,2017

Perlmutter, David.Grain brain: the surprising truth about wheat, carbs, and sugar--your brainssilent killers. Little Brown, 2015.

Rattray, Diana. “Types of Wheat Flour. “http://www.thespruce.com/types-of-wheat-flour-3050534. (accessed June 17, 2017).

https://whatscookingamerica.net/Bread/FlourTypes.htm. Flour Types – “Different Typesof Flours.” (accessed June17, 2017).

1. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/foodallergies/index.htm. “Food Allergies inSchools.” (accessed July12,2017).
2. Layton, Jean McFadden., and Linda Johnson. Larsen.Gluten-free baking for dummies,80.
3. Dvorak, Cody.“Wheat: From Field to Flour”. Pdf. Nebraska: Nebraska, 2008.https://nebraskawheat.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/WheatFromFieldToFlour.pdf. (accessed July12,2017).
4. Greene, Amanda. “Understanding Gluten.”http://www.huffingtonpost.com/amanda-greene/understanding-gluten_b_2832252.html.(accessed July 15, 2017).
5. Davis, William. Wheat belly: lose the wheat, lose the weight, and find your path back tohealth,50.
6. Layton, Jean McFadden., and Linda Johnson. Larsen. Gluten-free baking for dummies, 101.
7. Lawandi, Janice. ”Do You Know What Gluten Actually Is?” Thekitchn.com./what-the-heck-is-gluten-weve-got-chemistry-219916. (accessed August 2,2017)
8. Layton, Jean McFadden., and Linda Johnson. Larsen. Gluten-free baking for dummies, 101.
9. Lawandi, Janice. ”Do You Know What Gluten Actually Is?” Thekitchn.com./what-the-heck-is-gluten-weve-got-chemistry-219916. (accessed August 2,2017)
10. Crosby,Guy. “Explaining Gluten.”http://www.cookingscienceguy.com/pages/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Explaining-Gluten.pdf. (accessedAugust 2,2017).
11. Perlmutter, David. Grain brain: the surprising truth about wheat, carbs, and sugar--your brainssilent killers. Little Brown, 2015, 50.
12. Greene, Amanda. “Understanding Gluten.”http://www.huffingtonpost.com/amanda-greene/understanding-gluten_b_2832252.html.(accessed July 15, 2017).
13. https://whatscookingamerica.net/Bread/FlourTypes.htm. Flour Types – “DifferentTypes of Flours.” (accessed June17, 2017).
14. Rattray, Diana. “Types of Wheat Flour. “http://www.thespruce.com/types-of-wheat-flour-3050534. (accessed June 17, 2017).
15. Berkeley Wellness. “Types of Wheat Flour.”http://www.berkeleywellness.com/healthy-eating/food/article/types-wheat-flour (accessed June12, 2017).
16. https://whatscookingamerica.net/Bread/FlourTypes.htm. Flour Types – “DifferentTypes of Flours.” (accessed June17, 2017).
17. Rattray, Diana. “Types of Wheat Flour. “http://www.thespruce.com/types-of-wheat-flour-3050534. (accessed June 17, 2017).
18. Layton, Jean McFadden., and Linda Johnson. Larsen. Gluten-free baking for dummies, 101.
19. Layton, Jean McFadden., and Linda Johnson. Larsen. Gluten-free baking for dummies,
20. https://whatscookingamerica.net/Bread/FlourTypes.htm. Flour Types – “DifferentTypes of Flours.” (accessed June17, 2017).
21. Christensen, Julie. “A List of Leavening Agents.”http://oureverydaylife.com/list-leavening-agents-27126.html
22. Alt-Lopez, J. Kenji. “The Food Lab: How to Make the Best Light and Fluffy Pancakes.”http://www.seriouseats.com/2015/05/the-food-lab-how-to-make-the-best-buttermilk-pancakes.html.(accessed June 9,2017
23. Filippone, Peggy Trowbridge. “What Is Baking Soda and How is it Used in Baking?”https://www.thespruce.com/what-is-baking-soda-1809260. (accessed June17, 2017).
24. Parks, Stella. “Cookie Science: How Baking Soda Works.”http://www.seriouseats.com/2015/12/cookie-science-how-baking-soda-works.html. (accessed June 9,2017).
25. Christensen, Julie. “A List of Leavening Agents.”http://oureverydaylife.com/list-leavening-agents-27126.html
26. Filippone, Peggy Trowbridge. “What Is Baking Soda and How is it Used in Baking?”https://www.thespruce.com/what-is-baking-soda-1809260. (accessed June17, 2017).
27. Parks, Stella. “Cookie Science: How Baking Soda Works.”http://www.seriouseats.com/2015/12/cookie-science-how-baking-soda-works.html. (accessed June 9,2017).
28. Filippone, Peggy Trowbridge. “What Is Baking Soda and How is it Used in Baking?”https://www.thespruce.com/what-is-baking-soda-1809260. (accessed June17, 2017).

Next Generation Science Standards

Engineering Design

Asking Questions and Defining Problems

Asking questions and defining problems in 3–5 builds on grades K–2 experiences and progresses tospecifying qualitative relationships.

Define a simple design problem that can be solved through the development of an object, tool, process, or systemand includes several criteria for success and constraints on materials, time, or cost. (3-5-ETS1-1)

Planning and Carrying Out Investigations

Planning and carrying out investigations to answer questions or test solutions to problems in 3–5 builds onK–2 experiences and progresses to include investigations that control variables and provide evidence tosupport explanations or design solutions.

Plan and conduct an investigation collaboratively to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence, using fairtests in which variables are controlled and the number of trials considered. (3-5-ETS1-3)