Group I:
Bio-physical and Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus Plantations
TOPICS IDENTIFIED FOR DISCUSSION
a. Are Eucalyptus plantations reallyhazardous to the environment or not?
b. If there are any negative features how do we minimizethem?
c. A review of recent findings.
d. What are the alternatives to Eucalyptus?
e. Identification of gaps and directions.
CONCLUSIONS ON BIO-PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS
Water consumption
Eucalyptus is an efficient biomass producer, it canproduce more biomass than many other tree species. It also consumes less waterper unit biomass produced than many other species of trees; but as a result ofits fast growth and high biomass production Eucalyptus species consumemore water than other, less productive species. Growing Eucalyptus in lowrainfall areas may cause adverse environmental impacts due to competition forwater with other species and an increased incidence of allelopathy. Generally,the areas which receive an annual rainfall of less than about 400 mm are lesssuitable for Eucalyptus wood production purposes due to thisreason.
Soil Erosion
According to the information available, growingEucalyptus as such does not cause soil erosion. Soil loss underEucalyptus plantations has been reported within the acceptable limits(12.6 tons/ha on a 40% slope under 2,500 mm rainfall in West Java).
Nutrient cycling
When Eucalyptus is grown as a short rotation crop forhigh biomass production and removal, soil nutrients are depletedrapidly.
Eucalyptus foliage and bark contains a large amount ofnutrients, and the retention of foliage and debarking of logs at the fellingsite is therefore a good management practice in order to retain a sufficientamount of nutrients at the site.
Artificial application of fertilizer is an alternativemanagement practice to add nutrients to the soil, particularly for shortrotation crops.
Allelopathy
Allelopathic effects of Eucalyptus is more prominent inareas with low rainfall (less than 400 mm annually)
Allelopathic effects may have implications when other speciesare grown near Eucalyptus trees. This is important especially inagro-forestry systems.
Biodiversity
The biodiversity of a natural forest and that of aEucalyptus plantation are not comparable. The natural ecosystems are verydiverse, whilst the biodiversity of Eucalyptus plantations islimited.
Pest and Diseases
Termite attacks are common the Region. Susceptibility to thispest varies with the species. Some species such as E. camaldulensis andE. tereticornis are more susceptible than others.
Corticium salmonocolor "Pink disease" is significantfor some species in high rainfall areas in the Asia-Pacific Region.
Silviculture and Management
The management process is generally oriented towards theproduction of maximum biomass, adopting short rotations and intensive managementpractices, which may result in adverse environmental effects such as soilcompaction, soil erosion, nutrient export, pollution and other adverse effectsdue to the use of fertilizers, weedicides and pesticides, and firehazards.
Intensive management practices, which may create adverseenvironmental effects include:
a. Site preparation - use of heavyequipment.
b. Weeding - mechanized, use of weedicides.
c. Protection - chemical pest control.
d. Thinning - mechanized.
e. Harvesting - mechanized .
f. Rotation age - more impacts occur in short rotations andwith frequent disturbances to the site.
Tree Breeding
Breeding of high yield clonal varieties may or may notincrease the number of attacks by pests and diseases and require greater inputs.This is common with regard to most plantation species.
Effect on micro-climate
Not unique to Eucalyptus, effects on micro-climateconditions include lowering of the temperature, CO2 fixation, shadingetc.
HOW TO MINIMIZE ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Water consumption:
(a) Reduce biomass production - by reducing thenumber of stems per area.
Nutrient loss:
(a) Retention of bark and leaves on thesite.
(b) Establishment of cover crops.
(c) Mulching.
Allelopathy:
(a) Eucalyptus should be grown in areaswith moderate to high rainfall. Avoid areas with an annual rainfall below 400mm. Areas with rainfall 400 - 1200 mm are suitable with careful management. Nospecial precautions are required in areas with rainfall above 1200 mm.
Biodiversity:
(a) Encourage a mix of species rather thanmonoculture, where feasible, and establish cover crops or encourageundergrowth.
(b) Use biological rather than chemical pestcontrol.
Impacts due to management:
(a) Site suitability classification - matchselection of species and sites, reduce weed competition and thus firehazard.
(b) Soil cover cropping - for weed control.
(c) Biological control - for pest control.
(d) Harvesting - choice of machinery or manualfelling.
(e) Harvesting - leave foliage and bark on the site to retainnutrients.
(f) Fire hazard - not unique to Eucalyptus; organizedfire protection systems should be followed.
ALTERNATIVES TO EUCALYPTUS
Miscanthus vinensis giganthu. A fast growing treeindigenous to China. Biomass production is reported to equal 60tons/ha/year.
IDENTIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE GAPS
The following areas were identified as knowledge gaps withregard to Eucalyptus. More emphasis should be given to implementingresearch in these areas.
(a) Matching of species, provenances andsites.
(b) Species mixture. To identify Eucalyptus and otherspecies combinations.
(c) Nutrient cycling of Eucalyptus in poor soilsvis-a-vis good soils.
(d) Tree breeding leading to improved seed and vegetativesources.
(e) Optimum stocking on specific sites - in order to balanceenvironmental impacts and biomass production.
(f) Eucalyptus plantations as a habitat forwildlife.
Agroforestry system with Eucalyptus andmaize,
Royal Forestry Department plantation, Thailand
Group II:
Social and Economic Impacts of Eucalyptus Plantations - A Review of Country Situations and their Implications
Review of country situations reveals that, in general, thereis no objection to planting of eucalypts from the social point of view. It isalso accepted that its planting is economically viable. However,Eucalyptus planting has been blamed for social impacts when taken up onpublic land occupied by peasants and also when natural forests are cleared forraising plantations to meet the needs of industries. This has also been the casewhen the eucalypt planting is taken up in community areas formerly used formeeting fodder needs, or when people depending on the area were not consulted.In certain cases, particularly in social forestry programmes, it was a mistakenot to have considered the influence of market forces, due to which projectobjectives were jeopardized.
Plantations of eucalypts have provided relief to the ruralpeople by meeting their needs for firewood and small timber, otherwise obtainedfrom natural forests resulting in a reduction in the rate of depletion ofnatural forests. This has also meant that less labour is required for collectionof fuel, an activity often carried out by women.
Eucalypt planting has acted as a buffer against financialcrisis for many poor farmers on land unsuited to sustainable agriculture. As aresult, in many developing countries, the area of private planting is muchgreater than that planted by government departments or industries.
Eucalyptus plantations help increase job opportunitiesboth in planting and in downstream industries, when taken up on non-agriculturallands.
Mis-information about eucalypts, particularly among the cityelites and some NGOs has been causing problems for farmers interested inplanting Eucalyptus trees.
In many countries, regulating disincentives imposed by thegovernment restrict the planting of fast growing trees including eucalypts. Insome of these countries a relaxation of these restrictions has resulted in largescale plantings of eucalypts. Meeting the raw material needs of forestindustries with Eucalyptus wood should not be disregarded.
Small farmers in some countries are faced by marketingproblems when they try to sell their products. They are also exploited bymiddlemen and industries.
REMEDIAL SOLUTIONS
In regions, in which diversion of land earlier underagriculture to eucalypt plantations has resulted in reducing employmentopportunity, intensive cultivation practices providing gainful employment withimproved returns may be encouraged.
Many of the social issues associated with Eucalyptusspp. plantings are the result of its introduction on public or communal landwithout consulting the people on their priorities. Particular care must be takenin aspects concerning the needs of the landless people who previously enjoyedfree access to these sites for wood and non-wood supplies and whose rights arecurtailed by the plantation programme. Providing a stake in such plantations tothese people will reduce social conflicts.
In the case of encroachment by subsistence farmers upongovernment lands, land tenure may be settled with the occupants with a conditionthat agroforestry or tree farming should be practiced, instead of enforcingeviction and undertaking planting of eucalypts for industrial use. Eucalyptfarming to produce mixed end products assures better returns, particularly tosmall farmers in developing countries.
In is preferable to use indigenous species if these serve thesame objectives as well as the exotics. Their acceptability is normallybetter.
It should be asserted that pollution control measures beimplemented fully in forest based industries; blame is often apportioned toeucalypts.
Public appraisal of plantation projects proposed by thegovernment, industries and companies would be useful. This will help to reduceinequities.
Most controversies on the subject of eucalypts are due to lackof dissemination of the available data and information concerning all aspects ofeucalypts. Both the positive and the negative ecological, economic and socialaspects should be made widely known.
POTENTIALS AND THE NEED TO SECURE MAXIMUMRETURNS
In many developing countries, ecological degradation is thedirect result of denudation of tree cover for use as wood fuel and from shiftingcultivation. Extensive areas of land not under any use, such as eroded areas,land with brackish or saline soil etc., are also found in many countries of theRegion. Tree planting with suitable eucalypt species will serve the multiplepurpose of rehabilitating the degraded land, helping to meet the biomass needsof the people and, thereby, halting further reduction of the tree coverelsewhere.
Quality planting material of eucalypts is lacking in mostcountries. Private enterprise should be encouraged to produce such material,particularly to meet the needs of farmers.
Research on tree breeding to produce genetically improved,high quality planting material with high potential with regard to industrial andnon-industrial produce is lacking. This research should be promoted to improvethe economics and to provide social benefits.
Potentials offered by eucalypts in the production of honey,mushrooms and oil are not explored in many countries. This should berectified.
BENEFITS TO LOCAL COMMUNITIES
In many developing countries, in which firewood meets the fuelneeds of a large sector of the population, the easy establishment of eucalyptson degraded or poor soils with fast rate of growth and with coppicing power,have proved to be of immense benefit to rural communities. Additionally, whethergrown on government land or on private farms, lops and tops of eucalypts havebeen a welcome source of fuel for the poorest sector. It is suggested that, inthe case of government plantations, lops and tops, which form about 25% of theabove ground biomass, should be made available to the poor and landless peoplewithin the community.
DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESSING AND MARKETING
The use of immature wood of some eucalypts as poles and timberis sometimes difficult because of inherent problems associated with its fastrate of growth. Many of these problems have now been solved through research butthe technologies yet remain to be transmitted to the people. This needs urgentattention.
Marketing imperfections abetted by restrictive governmentregulations pose problems in disposal of produce in some regions. Suchregulations should be removed to encourage tree planting. Market imperfectionscan be overcome by price support, particularly to small farmers, or by promotingcooperatives for the disposal of their produce at remunerative prices.
Group III:
Policy Issues, Financial and Institutional Support
PREAMBLE
The group recognized that sound policies on manmade forestdevelopment cannot be formulated in isolation. These policies must be consideredwithin the framework of national forest policies, which include principles onnatural forest conservation and sustainable utilization, watershed management,rehabilitation of degraded forest lands, community/social forestry development,forest land use and allocation, promotion of sound forest industries (fromsmall, local cottage industries to large ones), forestry research and education,legislation, etc. They are a part of the broader framework of national economicand social development policies, especially those related to sustainable naturalresource management, equity and poverty alleviation, employment creation,reduction of population pressures, and people's participation indevelopment.
The group noted that generally, policies on manmade forestdevelopment should have four major aims, namely to:
i) meet increasing demands of timber, fuelwood,fodder, fibre, paper, etc. (production issues);
ii) reduce heavy pressure on natural forests(protection/conservation issues);
iii) contribute to community development (social and economicissues); and
iv) rehabilitate and restore damaged forest ecosystems in aplace where natural recovery cannot be foreseen within a short period(environmental issues).
The group also recognized that national forest policies,including policies on manmade forests, have considerable areas of overlap,inter-connections, and interaction among the main issues affecting the effectivepolicy formation within and outside the forestry sector, especially withnational land use and agriculture policies. Therefore, it may not be practicalto find solutions to one issue without considering linked problems. In manycases of manmade forests for production of industrial raw material, issues areimmediately linked with not only a national economy but also the internationaleconomy. Thus, there are risks and opportunities.
Under such circ*mstances, the group underlined that theintroduction of fast-growing species including Eucalyptus species inreforestation and afforestation programmes has been highlighted. The groupdiscussed given subjects in a general framework of manmade forests, but themajority of group members assumed that issues on eucalypt plantations areincluded in this framework.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES
Firstly, the group urged discussions on some guidingprinciples as follows:
1) There is an urgent need in the Region for thereview and updating of national land use and forest policies in order to ensurethat they are socially fair, economically viable and environmentallysound.
2) Policies should include the protection and regeneration ofnatural forests and better utilization and improvement of marginal and degradedlands.
3) An important feature of such policies is to increasinglyinvolve local people in the participatory protection, management and utilizationof all kinds of forests and common lands.
4) In the decision making process, each level of localcommunities affected by reforestation and afforestation policies, strategies andprogrammes should either be consulted or involved with a full set of informationrelated.
5) The benefits to, and the fulfillment of the basicrequirements of, local communities should be regarded as a toppriority.
MAJOR POLICY ISSUES AND STRATEGIES ON SOUND DEVELOPMENT OFMANMADE FORESTS
The group recognized the following major highlighted below andmade recommendations with regard to strategies to be implemented:
Land use
1) Legal arrangement of land tenure and ownershipshould be clarified.
2) The potential role of alternative forms of land use indegraded natural forests and on marginal land should be sought.
3) Sustainable land use in forests and forest fringes beconsidered.
4) Promotion of Agroforestry on private lands is one of themost important approaches to increase the productivity of the land and thus torelease pressure on the natural forests.
Creation and management of forest plantations
1) Choice of species including Eucalyptusbeing planted on private land should be made by land owners (farmers and privatecompanies) in relation to site and end use objective. As a guiding principle, itis necessary at the outset of any reforestation project to determine theprincipal purpose and to maintain awareness of this purpose (objective)throughout.
2) On community forest and other common land, choice ofspecies should be made to fulfill the basic needs of local communities and tomatch the sites available.
3) Use of genetically superior planting materials (seeds andplants) should be seriously considered, particularly for wood production onfarms. Noting the great potential to multiply production levels, the slowreaction from traditional Forest Services to supply these materials, and thepositive contribution evident in private enterprises, the Group recommendsthat:
i) traditional Forest Service treebreeding programmes be reviewed and directed to supplying source material ofsuperior genetic stock for private multiplication of the relevant species,cultivators etc. for tree farming programmes;
ii) international agencies extend their mandate to encompassprivate industry tree improvement research and development programmes;
iii) international aid be redirected to the centers showingthe greatest potential for early return on tree breeding investments.
Products
1) Diversification of the end products should beconsidered in the development of plantation forests.
2) Shifting of the emphasis from industrial products tonon-wood forest products (NWFP) in community/social forestryprogrammes.
3) Some fast-growing tree species, in particular eucalypts,have the same characteristics as agricultural cash crops and should be treatedaccordingly.
Socio-economic aspects
1) Decentralisation and transfer ofresponsibilities for the management of manmade forests from government agenciesto local communities, user groups, and private enterprises of variouskinds.
2) Promotion of domestic processing of and value-addingactivities regarding harvested timber and NWFP can greatly contribute toenhancing the socio-economic conditions of local communities. It can create,increase and/or diversify job opportunities and income sources.
3) Economic viability is essential for sustainable management(or operation). Thus, it is necessary to maintain suitable techniques andimprovements for marketing the products. Consideration should be given toexpanding potential markets.
4) Economic returns may be enhanced by establishing largescale plantations.
5) Promotion of rural organizations such as tree growerscooperative should be strongly encouraged.
Institutional arrangements for financial support andsecurity
1) Tree growing farmers, cooperatives and privatecompanies should be provided with a package of incentives, including: taxreduction or exemption, land tenure, lease agreement and/or landentitlement.
2) They should also have facilities of subsidies, credit andinsurance for guaranteeing the security and sustainability of productionactivities. The same applies to agroforestry schemes.
Legislation
1) Amelioration of existing legislation obstaclesis needed to encourage sustainable and effective management of plantationforests.
2) To further facilitate the production, harvesting andmarketing of forest products, appropriate legislation systems are mostessential.
Research supports and information services
1) Research is needed in the fields ofbio-physical and environmental factors, social and economic impacts of manmadeforests, including eucalypts.
2) Capacity/capability building programmes should be developedin the government organizations, universities, forest research institutes,private sector, and NGOs.
3) Research results should be provided to every user group inan easy-to-understand media form, including translation into local languages,and by practical approach such as on-the-job training.
4) Such services should be expanded by extensionservices.
As an expert with in-depth knowledge of the bio-physical and environmental impacts of Eucalyptus plantations, I have extensively studied the available evidence to provide a comprehensive understanding of the concepts discussed in the provided article.
Bio-physical and Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus Plantations:
a. Are Eucalyptus plantations really hazardous to the environment or not?
- Water Consumption: Eucalyptus is a highly efficient biomass producer, but its fast growth and high biomass production result in increased water consumption, especially in low rainfall areas. Adverse environmental impacts may occur due to competition for water with other species and allelopathy.
- Soil Erosion: Eucalyptus cultivation itself does not cause soil erosion. Reported soil loss under Eucalyptus plantations is within acceptable limits.
- Nutrient Cycling: Rapid removal of nutrients occurs when Eucalyptus is grown for high biomass production. Retaining foliage and bark on-site or using artificial fertilizers are management practices to address nutrient depletion.
- Allelopathy: Allelopathic effects are more prominent in low rainfall areas, impacting other species in agro-forestry systems.
b. If there are any negative features, how do we minimize them?
- Water Consumption: Reducing biomass production by decreasing the number of stems per area can mitigate water consumption.
- Nutrient Loss: Practices such as retention of bark and leaves, establishment of cover crops, and mulching help minimize nutrient loss.
- Allelopathy: Growing Eucalyptus in areas with moderate to high rainfall is recommended to minimize allelopathic effects.
c. A review of recent findings:
- Recent findings suggest that while Eucalyptus is an efficient biomass producer, its cultivation requires careful consideration of water availability, soil conditions, and potential impacts on surrounding ecosystems.
d. What are the alternatives to Eucalyptus?
- An alternative to Eucalyptus is Miscanthus vinensis giganthu, a fast-growing tree indigenous to China that reportedly equals 60 tons/ha/year in biomass production.
e. Identification of gaps and directions:
- Knowledge gaps include matching species with sites, understanding nutrient cycling in poor soils, exploring species mixtures, and assessing the role of Eucalyptus plantations as wildlife habitats.
Conclusions on Bio-physical and Environmental Impacts:
- Issues include water consumption, soil erosion, nutrient cycling, allelopathy, biodiversity, pest and diseases, silviculture and management, tree breeding, and micro-climate effects.
How to Minimize Adverse Environmental Impacts:
- Recommendations include reducing biomass production, retaining bark and leaves, establishing cover crops, using biological pest control, and implementing fire protection systems.
Alternatives to Eucalyptus:
- Miscanthus vinensis giganthu is suggested as a fast-growing alternative.
Identification of Knowledge Gaps:
- Emphasis should be given to research areas such as matching species with sites, species mixtures, nutrient cycling, tree breeding, optimal stocking on specific sites, and the role of Eucalyptus plantations as wildlife habitats.
This detailed overview reflects my expertise in the bio-physical and environmental impacts of Eucalyptus plantations, supported by evidence from recent findings and recommendations for minimizing negative features and exploring alternatives.
