And Helps Control Human PopulationExplosion
1. To Be Or Not To Be A Vegetable 2. Supermarket Botany: Vegetable Anatomy 3. The World's Largest Vegetables 4. Tropical Yams Named After Dioscorides 5. Steroids That Foam In Water 6. Cardiac Steroids That Stimulate YourHeart 7. Contraception With Yams 8. Steroids: The Drug Of Champions
1. To Be Or Not To Be A Vegetable
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Webster's New World Dictionary (Second Edition)defines a vegetable as a plant that is eaten whole or in part, rawor cooked, generally with a main entree or in a salad but NOT AS ADESSERT. Many vegetables, such as tomatoes and pea pods aretechnically fruits because they develop from the ovary of a flower (following pollination and double fertilization) and they contain seeds at maturity. Seeds develop from structures called ovules inside the ovary. In order for the ovule to develop into a seed, a minute 7-celled embryo sac inside must be fertilized by two sperm. One sperm unites with the egg to form an embryo. A second sperm unites with two polar nuclei inside the endosperm mother cell to form the food-storage tissue in a seed called endosperm. The following "vegetables" are really botanical fruits, including tomatoes, okra, squash, cucumbers, bean & pea pods,peppers and egg plant. Even a corn grain is technically a fruit (called a caryopsis) because each grain develops from a separate seed-bearing ovary with a long, thread-like style. The "silk" is all the styles collectively from several hundred grains in the ear. Since they are typically eaten with a main entree (not as a dessert), all these botanical fruits are also called vegetables.
 Botanical Fruits |  Botanical Vegetables |
Left: An assortment of botanical fruits, including orange, lemon, lime, apple, pineapple guava, banana, avocado, chayote, persimmon, red grapes, tomato and soybean pod. All of these are seed-bearing structures (ripened ovaries), although some are sterile and do not contain mature seeds. Right: An assortment of botanical vegetables, including lettuce, broccoli, red cabbage, asparagus, celery, carrot, parsley, radish, turnip, onion and leek. Although it is not a flowering plant, the mushroom could also be considered a botanical vegetable.
The controversy over whether a tomato is a fruit or vegetable reached the U.S. Supreme Court. A tariff law that imposed a duty on vegetables but not fruits caused the tomato's status to become a matter of legal importance. On February 4, 1887 action was brought against the collector of the port of New York to recover back duties paid under protest on tomatoes imported by the plaintiff from the West Indies, which the collector assessed under the Tariff Act of March 3, 1883. This controversy was settled in 1893 when the U.S. Supreme Court declared that the tomato was a vegetable. The Court's official interpretation was based on the popular dictionary definition which classifies a vegetable as something eaten at dinner with your main entree, but not as a dessert. The case is known as Nix v. Hedden, 149 U.S. 304 (May 10, 1893).
The tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is a botanical fruit. Because
the entire fruit wall or pericarp is fleshy, it is technically called a berry.
In terms of the universe, life, and the pursuit of happiness, this controversy between a fruit and a vegetable is really not that significant or important; however, you are still probably wondering what in the heck is a true botanical vegetable? A botanical vegetable may be defined as any edible "non-fruit" part of a plant. They are NOT ripened, seed-bearing ovaries formed by intimate sexual encounters between plants or between plants and insect pollinators; however, some vegetables are hybrid offspring resulting from sex between two different species, including the broccoflower (broccoli x cauliflower) and rutabaga (cabbage x turnip). In the case of the rutabaga, chloroplast DNA studies have shown that the maternal parent was the turnip. The infamous rabbage (radish x cabbage) was a dismal failure because it ended up with the roots of its cabbage mother and the leaves of its radish father. True botanical vegetables include the following edible vegetative parts of a plant:
Most of the world's botanical vegetables are produced by shrubby or herbaceous plants and vines, but there are some vegetables derived from trees. One case in point is the horseradish tree (Moringa oleifera), also called "malungay" in the Phillipines. This is a small, soft-wooded tree native to India but cultivated throughout the tropics. It is named from the pungent root that is sometimes used as a substitute for the true horseradish (Armoracia lapathifolia) of the mustard family (Brassicaceae). The young, tender, mustard-favored leaves are eaten raw in salads and cooked as a tasty potherb. The cooked leaves are also placed in soups and curries. The long beanlike pods (fruits) of this tree are also used in soups and curries.
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Two relatives of the horseradish tree: Moringa drouhardii (left) and M. stenopetala (right). Like the horseradish tree (M. oleifera), both species have long, beanlike pods. Unlike the horseradish tree, these two species have large, water-storage trunks and are adapted to hot, arid regions.
Horseradish tree (Moringa oleifera), also called "malungay" in the Phillipines and "malamgal" is some Asian markets. This is a small, soft-wooded tree native to India but cultivated throughout the tropics. The young, tender, mustard-favored leaves are eaten raw in salads and cooked as a tasty potherb. The cooked leaves are also placed in soups and curries.
2. Supermarket Botany: The Anatomy Of Vegetables
 | 1. Roots & Storage Roots: Beets,radish, rabbage?, rutabaga, turnip, horse radish,jicama, salsify, sweet potato, parsnip, and cassava (tapioca). 2. Leaves & Leafy Heads: Swiss chard, spinach (actually smoked ina pipeby "Pop-eye"), lamb's quarters, water cress, cabbage, kale,collards,turnip greens, lettuce, parsley, brussels sprouts, andendive. |
 | 3. Immature Flower Cluster(Inflorescence) & Stalk (Peduncle): Broccoli,cauliflower and the hybrid broccoflower. 4. Sunflower Head (incl. Phyllaries & Receptacle): Artichoke. 5. Stem: Bamboo shoots, kohlrabi and asparagus. |
 | 6. Tuber (Modified Stem): Potato, jerusalem artichoke, true yams(Dioscorea). 7. Bulb (Modified Stem): Onion, garlic and chives. 8. Corm (Modified Stem): Taro, dasheen, and water chestnut 9. Rhizome (Underground Stem): Ginger. |
 | 10. Leaf Stalk (Petiole): Rhubarb, celery & sweet fennel. 11. Entire Plant Bodies: In Thailand called Khai-nam or"water-eggs" from the minute duckweed (Wolffiaglobosa). A high protein dip. Many Other Vegetables! |
3. The World's Largest Vegetables
So if you exclude massive squash andpumpkinsfrom the vegetable class, what is the world's largest vegetable? Thistitle should be limited to vegetables in a typical humandiet--because toAustralian koalas, the largest vegetable would most certainly be anenormous eucalyptus tree. The 1985 Guinness Book Of WorldRecords (UK Edition) lists some of the record-breaking vegetables, including a 35 pound (16 kg) turnip, a 45 pound (20 kg) red cabbage, a 28 pound (13 kg)broccoli, a 52 pound (24 kg) cauliflower, a 25 pound (11 kg)lettuce, and aremarkable 124 pound (56 kg) cabbage six feet (1.8 m) in diameter. Although this giant cabbage cited in the Guinness Book seemsunbeatable forthe title of "World's Largest Vegetable," there are tropical yamsbelongingto the genus Dioscorea that may be 6 to 9 feet long(2-3 m) and weigh 150pounds (68 kg) or more, although they are usually harvested atabout 2-6pounds. These yams are not to be confused with fleshy storageroots of redsweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) of the Morning GloryFamily(Convolvulaceae) which are also called yams. True yams belong toanentirely different and unrelated plant family, theDioscoreaceae.
It should be pointed out here that some species of giant seaweed or kelp are used for food. The overall dimensions of some of these algae (including their stipes and blades) is probably larger than most Dioscorea yams.
Yams and cassava root at themarketplace in Roseau, Dominica. Also in photo are sweet potatoes,dasheen (left), peppers, pigeon peas (Cajanus) and red sorrel(Hibiscus sabdariffa).
4. Tropical Yams Named After Dioscorides
Although rarely seen in North America,true yams(Dioscorea spp., Dioscoreaceae) are the third mostimportant tropical"root" crop after cassava (Manihot esculenta,Euphorbiaceae) and sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas, Convolvulaceae). This isespecially true in WestAfrica, parts of Central America and the Caribbean, the PacificIslands,and Southeast Asia. Other important starchy "root" crops are taroanddasheen (Colocasia esculenta, Araceae), the source ofPolynesian poi,arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea, Marantaceae), andachira (Canna edulis,Cannaceae). The true yam is about 20 percent starch and as a foodis verysimilar to a potato. The generic name commemorates Dioscorides,theancient Greek physician and naturalist (1st Century AD). Dioscoridesauthored the classic De Materia Medica, a five volumereference of severalthousand plant drugs that was used for 15 centuries. The mostcommonlycultivated edible yams are D. rotundata and D.cayensis in Africa, D. alataand D. esculenta in Asia, and D.trifida in the New World, although manycultivated varieties are known. They are climbing perennial vineswithshiny, heart-shaped leaves, arising from large underground stemsthat aretechnically called tubers rather than roots. Like a potato, thetubers canbe propagated by planting sections containing the "eyes" or buds;however,harvesting them is a laborious task because the tubers are deeplyburied. Dioscorea is a large genus with more than 600species. An Africanspecies called elephant's foot or Hottentot's bread (D.elephantipes)produces a massive basal stem (caudex) weighing up to 700 pounds (318kg). Theabove-ground part of this caudex resembles the shell ofatortoise; hence the common name of "turtleback plant." Like othercaudiciform xerophytes (desert plants with enlarged basal stems), thevine relieson carbohydrates and moisture stored in its stem during extendedperiods ofdrought. During severe drought conditions the gigantic tuberous stems are eaten as famine food by Hottentots. Luckily for theHottentots, the tuberous stems arethoroughly cooked because they contains toxic saponinsthat arebroken down during the heating process. Although not a commonvegetable,this plant would easily take the record of "World's LargestVegetable." Another unusual African yam is the air potato (Dioscoreabulbifera). It has small or no subterranean tubers, butinstead develops large, liver-shaped aerial tubers up to fourpounds (2 kg) each. In New Guinea and Melanesia specialceremonial yams weighing over 120 pounds (54 kg) are grown toreflect the grower's status in the community. The yams are usedfor gifts and ritualized exchanges. A yam festival is held atharvesttime during which the tubers are covered by elaborate wovenmasks. There are reportedly yams in tropical Asia and the SouthPacific that are much larger. In fact, there is one ratherdubious, unconfirmed report of an enormous yam on the island ofPohnpei that was 10 feet (3 m) in length and weighed up to 1500pounds (680 kg). Rumors have it that at least 10 people wererequired to carry it. REMEMBER THAT THIS RECORD IS UNSUBSTANTIATED AND MAY NOT BE TRUE.
Subterranean tuber of a true yam (Dioscorea alata), the third most important tropical root crop after cassava and sweet potatoes. The venation and shiny, heart-shaped leaves of true yams are unmistakable compared to those of sweet potatoes and other root crops.
The air potato (Dioscorea bulbifera). This unusual African yam develops large, liver-shaped aerial tubers weighing up to four pounds (2 kg) each.
A Hottentot's bread (Dioscorea elephantipes)showing the characteristic heart-shaped leaves and huge caudexresembling the shell of a tortoise.
5. Steroids That Foam In Water
| Inaddition to food, the tubers of some Mexican and Central Americanspecies of Dioscorea (including D.composita and D. floribunda) are rich in anatural steroid called diosgenin. Natural plantsteroids are formed by the polymerization of 5-carbon isoprenesubunits into tetracyclic triterpenoid compounds during complexmetabolic pathways inside plant cells. |
All steroids have the samefundamental structure of four (tetracyclic) carbon rings called thesteroid backbone or steroid nucleus. The addition of differentchemical groups at different places on this backbone leads to theformation of many different steroidal compounds, including the sexhormones progesterone and testosterone, the anti-inflammatorysteroid cortisone, and the cardiac steroids digoxin and digitoxin. The important animal steroid, cholesterol,also has this tetracyclic backbone structure. Some of thesecompounds arecalled steroidal glycosides (or glucosides) because they alsocontain sugarmolecules. Steroidal compounds in the Dioscoreaceae, Liliaceae andAgavaceae are also called saponins because they foam in water. Infact, some of these steroidal saponins, such as the soap lily(Chlorogalum pomeridianum, Liliaceae) were used as soap by nativeAmericans. Steroidal saponins may irritate mucous membranes, break down red blood cells in vitro, and are especially toxic to cold-blooded animals. In fact, fresh bulbs were used to paralyze and capture fish by throwing slices of bulbs into ponds and streams, and roasted bulbs were also eaten by several tribes of California Indians. Apparently the saponins are especially toxic to respiratory organs of fish without affecting their edibility. Saponins have also been used inshampoos, foam fire extinguishers, toothpaste, and in the brewing industry as afoaming agent for the froth ("head") of beer. Commercial sources of saponins include the soapberry tree (Sapindus saponaria, Sapindaceae), soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria, Rosaceae), and the popular bouncing bet (Saponaria officinalis, Caryphyllaceae).
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6. Cardiac Steroids That StimulateYour Heart
Cardiac glycosides (steroids withattached sugarmolecules--including digoxin and digitoxin) from the Europeanfoxglove(Digitalis purpurea, Scrophulariaceae) serve as apowerful heart stimulantin humans. They prolong the relaxation phase of the heart(diastole)during which the left ventricle fills with blood. This results inastronger ventricular contraction (systole) and greater volume ofbloodpumped out through the aorta. Of course, relaxing the heart so theventricles have a chance to fill with maximum blood volume can haveseriousside effects--too much digitalis can cause a permanent relaxationresultingin a "flat-liner" and a one-way trip to the "happy huntinggrounds." Another fascinating story about steroidalglycosides involves the monarch butterfly. Toxic steroidalglycosides areingested by caterpillars as they feed on milkweed plants of thegenusAsclepias (Asclepiadaceae). The glycosides have noill effects on theravenous caterpillars and are actually stored in their bodies. Uponmetamorphosis the glycosides show up in the bodies of the adultmonarchbutterfly--thus rendering them toxic to predatory birds. Oneswallow ofsuch a butterfly is very distasteful or may cause the bird tobecomegravely ill--and birds quickly learn to avoid monarchs. Contraception with yams is not based onthe "plugand play" principle of a diaphragm (or Windows 95!), it is based onanintricate hormonal feedback system called the menstrual cycle. Thediscovery of a natural steroidal precursor in tropical yams hasgreatlyreduced the cost of synthetic steroids used in birth control pillsandcorticosteroids used to treat Addison's disease, asthma, arthritis,bursitis, tendinitis, dermatitis, hemorrhoids, and many otherailments. Itis possible to synthesize these hormones from bile acids of cattleorextract them from excised adrenal cortexes, but such methods aretime-consuming and very expensive. The most cumbersome part of thechemicalsynthesis of these hormones is the complex steroidal backbone. Atone timeit took 40 oxen to provide enough cortisone to treat one patientfor oneday, and in 1938 one gram of cortisone cost $100. Today thenaturally-occurring diosgenin in Mexican yams can readily be converted intothesevaluable steroids by simply adding the appropriate chemical groupto thealready-present steroidal backbone. In fact, more than 60,000 tonsoffresh yam tubers are imported into the United States each year fortheproduction of birth control pills. You can also purchase extractsof yamsin tablet form that supposedly prevent ovulation and provide a"natural"method of birth control; however, it would be advisable tothoroughlyresearch these claims before trying the latter method on a mate. If indoubt--you might want to try the very effective and foolproof oralcontraceptive "Not Now Dear."7. Contraception With Yams
8. Steroids: The Drug Of Champions
| Anabolic steroids are essentially the malehormone testosterone and its synthetic derivatives. The latterweredeveloped in the early 1930s to prevent the atrophy of muscletissue inpatients with debilitating illnesses. They were also given to burnvictimsand surgery patients to speed up tissue rejuvenation. Anabolicsteroidsentered the athletic scene in Olympic competition in the 1950s,when it waslearned that Soviet weightlifters were using them to increase theirmusclemass and strength. |
And who could ever forget the Seoul Olympics in1988when sprinter Ben Johnson of Canada burst out of the startingblocks to winthe 100 meter dash, leaving American Carl Lewis in the dust. Threedayslater the gold medal was given to Lewis because traces ofstanozolol (ananabolic steroid) were found in Johnson's urine.
Although athleteshavereported remarkable results with steroids, the long-term sideeffects canbe catastrophic--including liver cancer, heart disease, and kidneydamage. In addition to tissue building, the steroids can also masculinizeone'sbody. The is particularly noticeable in woman body builders whomay growfacial hair as their voice deepens and their breasts decrease insize. Although the FDA has banned most anabolic steroids except formedical use,they are not controlled substances like cocaine and heroin. Theyare stillbeing smuggled into the United States from Mexico and Europe. Althoughthey started out with Olympians who wanted an edge in theircompetition,the use of anabolic steroids has now spread to thousands ofmediocreathletes who want to look like Mr. Universe. A boolean search of "dioscorea + yam"using oneof the fine Internet search engines (such as Altavista, Yahoo andLycos)will lead you to a number of references on yams, includingcommercialsources for naturopathic extracts from the tuber. In addition todiosgenin, some species also contain a wonder drug called DHEA(dehydroenpiandrosterone), a hormone that is also secreted byadrenalglands in the human body. There is some evidence suggesting thatthishormone is anti-carcinogenic, may slow down the aging process, andmaycontrol obesity. According to some studies the level of thishormonesteadily drops as one ages. Whether this chemical can help us tomaintaina healthy, youthful body remains to be seen. There are undoubtedlymanyother factors affecting the aging process. In addition to being the world's largestbotanical vegetable, true yams belong to one of the largest generaofflowering plants on earth; have probably slowed down theexponentialpopulation growth of humans more than any other plant (particularlyinhighly developed countries); have provided some of the mostimportant drugsto relieve numerous painful and debilitating ailments; contain oneof themost promising drugs to combat the aging process; and have providedmillions of people with one of the world's most important sourcesofstarch.
