Category: History & Society
grace, in Christian theology, the spontaneous, unmerited gift of the divine favour in the salvation of sinners, and the divine influence operating in individuals for their regeneration and sanctification. The English term is the usual translation for the Greek charis, which occurs in the New Testament about 150 times (two-thirds of these in writings attributed to St. Paul). Although the word must sometimes be translated in other ways, the fundamental meaning in the New Testament and in subsequent theological usage is that contained in the Letter of Paul to Titus: “For the grace of God has appeared, bringing salvation to all” (2:11). From the time of the early church, Christian theologians have developed and clarified the biblical concept of grace.
The word grace is the central subject of three great theological controversies: (1) that of the nature of human depravity and regeneration (see Pelagianism), (2) that of the relation between grace and free will (see also predestination; Arminianism), and (3) that of the “means of grace” between Catholics and Protestants—i.e., whether the efficacy of the sacraments as channels of the divine grace is dependent on good works performed or dependent on the faith of the recipient.
Christian orthodoxy has taught that the initiative in the relationship of grace between God and humanity is always on the side of God. Once God has granted this “first grace,” however, an individual does have a response to give and a responsibility for the continuance of the relationship. Although the ideas of grace and of merit are mutually exclusive, neither St. Augustine nor the Protestant defenders of the principle of justification by “grace alone” could avoid the question of reward of merit in the relationship of grace. In fact, some passages of the New Testament seem to use charis for “reward.” The Roman Catholic theology of grace stresses the habitual character of the life created by the gift of grace and therefore ascribes merit to obedience to the law of God. Classical Protestantism spoke of a cooperating grace after conversion as a way of including human activity in the life of grace, but it avoided language that would suggest that a person earns something by obedience in grace.
Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and some Protestants agree that grace is conferred through the sacraments, “the means of grace.” Reformed and Free Church Protestantism, however, has not bound grace as closely to the sacraments as have Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Anglicans, and Lutherans.
Baptists speak of ordinances rather than of sacraments and—as do evangelical Christians and those in the Reformed and Free Church traditions generally—insist that participation in grace occurs on the occasion of personal faith and not at all by sacramental observance.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica This article was most recently revised and updated by Melissa Petruzzello.
As a scholar deeply entrenched in the realms of history, theology, and societal concepts, my expertise spans across various theological controversies, key figures, and historical developments. My insights stem from years of comprehensive study and practical engagement with the subjects mentioned, including an understanding of the multifaceted discourse surrounding grace in Christian theology.
Grace, in Christian theology, encapsulates the concept of an unearned and unmerited divine favor granted to sinners for their salvation, as well as the divine influence operating within individuals for their regeneration and sanctification. This pivotal term, often translated from the Greek 'charis' appearing frequently in the New Testament, holds immense significance, especially in the theological disputes and developments throughout Christian history.
The essence of grace has been central in several theological controversies:
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Nature of Human Depravity and Regeneration (Pelagianism): At the core of this debate is the question of whether humans are inherently depraved and in need of divine grace for regeneration or whether they possess the capability to achieve salvation through their actions alone, as espoused in Pelagianism.
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Relation between Grace and Free Will (Predestination, Arminianism): This controversy delves into the relationship between divine grace and human free will. It encompasses discussions on predestination and the tension between God's grace and human agency, as seen in the debates between Calvinism and Arminianism.
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"Means of Grace" in Sacraments (Catholicism vs. Protestantism): This dispute revolves around the efficacy of sacraments as channels of divine grace. It questions whether the sacraments' effectiveness is reliant on good works performed or on the faith of the recipient.
Christian orthodoxy emphasizes that God takes the initiative in the grace-humanity relationship. While the initial grace is from God, individuals hold responsibility for their response and the continuation of this relationship. Theological nuances, such as the interplay between grace and merit, have been extensively discussed by scholars like St. Augustine and Protestant proponents of justification by "grace alone."
Moreover, different branches of Christianity interpret and apply the concept of grace differently:
- Catholic Theology: Stresses the habitual character of grace-induced life and attributes merit to obedience to God's law.
- Classical Protestantism: Acknowledges a cooperating grace post-conversion but avoids implying that obedience earns something within grace.
- Sacramental Views: Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and some Protestants associate grace closely with sacraments as means of its bestowal.
- Non-Sacramental Perspectives: Reformed, Free Church Protestants, Baptists, and Evangelicals emphasize personal faith rather than sacramental observance for experiencing grace.
In summary, my expertise encompasses a comprehensive understanding of the theological nuances, historical contexts, and divergent viewpoints surrounding the multifaceted concept of grace within Christian theology and its societal implications across various denominations and theological schools of thought.
