Colour effects
When a person views an opaque coloured object, it is only the light reflected from the object that can activate the visual process in the eye and brain. Because different illuminants have different spectral energy distributions, as shown in the figure, a given object in these illuminations will reflect different energy distributions. Yet the eye and brain are such superb systems that they are able to compensate for such differences, and normal-appearing colours are perceived, a phenomenon called colour constancy.
Colour constancy does not apply, however, when there are subtle differences in colour. If, for example, two orange objects, one coloured by an orange pigment, the other by a combination of red and yellow pigments, match precisely in daylight, in the light of a tungsten lamp one may appear more reddish than the other. Because of this effect, called metamerism, it is always necessary to follow precisely the illumination and viewing conditions specified when comparing a sample colour with one in a colour atlas.
The intensity of illumination also affects colour perception. At very low light levels, blue and green objects appear brighter than red ones compared with their relative brightness in stronger illumination, an effect known as the Purkinje shift for its discoverer, the Czech physiologist Jan Evangelista Purkinje. At higher levels of illumination, there is a related shift in hues, called the Bezold-Brücke effect, such that most colours appear less red or green and more blue or yellow as the intensity of illumination increases.
If a bright spot of white light is projected onto a screen uniformly illuminated with a pale blue light, an effect known as simultaneous colour contrast makes the white light appear pale yellow and the blue light seem grayer than if the two were viewed separately. The complementary hue is induced by the adjacent illumination. Successive colour contrast, which occurs when a person stares at one colour and then shifts to another, produces the same effect. A person who stares at a pattern of colours for some time and then looks at a white area sees a negative afterimage of the pattern in complementary hues. This effect, also called chromatic adaptation, is what causes browns to appear reddish to someone who has just viewed a green lawn. Thus, even when the colour of a given object is measured and its physical cause identified, visual effects can prevent the precise perception of that colour from being specified. Some of these effects can be explained fairly simply by changes in the sensitivity of the eye’s receptors to different colours as intensity changes, by fatigue in specific receptors, or by receptor inhibition; others are not understood. In fact, scientists did not know the process by which the eye and brain perceive colour until the early 1960s and even now do not understand all the details.
Colour vision
One of the most successful theories of colour vision, the trichromatic theory, was first proposed around 1801 by Thomas Young, an English physician, and refined about 50 years later by the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz. Based on experiments in colour matching, this theory postulates three types of colour receptors in the eye. The actual existence of such receptor cells, known as cones (from their shape), was finally confirmed in the early 1960s. The three types of cones have maximum sensitivities in the blue, green, and red regions of the spectrum, with absorption peaks near 445 nm, 535 nm, and 565 nm, respectively. These three sets are often designated as S, M, and L for their sensitivity to short, medium, and long wavelengths. The trichromatic theory explains that colour vision results from the relative intensity of response of the S, M, and L cones. (Equal stimulation of all three gives the perception of white.) There is obviously a close connection between this trichromatic theory and the tristimulus value system.
One of the trichromatic theory’s strengths is that the existence of several kinds of colour blindness can be simply explained as the lack of function of one or more sets of the cones. If one set of cones does not function, dichromatism results. People with deuteranopia (M set missing) or protanopia (L set missing) perceive only blue and yellow. In the much rarer tritanopia the S cones are missing, and only green and red are perceived. Persons who have no functioning cone system suffer from the extremely rare monochromatism and can perceive only grays.
Although the trichromatic theory seems to explain much about colour vision, other theories have also been supported and studied, especially the opponent process theory. First proposed by the German physiologist Ewald Hering in 1878, this approach presumes that colour vision involves three mechanisms, each responding to a pair of opposites—namely, light–dark, red–green, and blue–yellow. It is based on many psychophysical observations, including the fact that blue and yellow (and also red and green) cannot coexist in any perceived colour; there are no bluish yellows (or reddish greens). Several of the contrast and afterimage effects can be explained very simply by this approach.
It is now recognized that the trichromatic and opponent process theories are not incompatible. They have been combined in a number of zone theories, which postulate that the cones function in a trichromatic manner in one zone, while in another zone the signals from the cones are combined in neural cells so as to produce one achromatic (white–black) and two chromatic (blue–yellow and green–red) signals, which are then interpreted in the brain. Although it is clear that zone theories, encompassing both trichromatic and opponent colour theories, are fully successful in explaining the many aspects of colour perception, there are still details that remain to be worked out.
